Orgs 2000 Term Notes Essay Example

Orgs 2000 Term Notes Essay WEEK 1 The organization has set of features shared by modern large scale organizations called bureaucracy (Max Weber note, very strategic design-y) o Features include: 0 1 . Clearly delineated positions and Jobs with required qualifications 0 2. Formal hierarchy of positions line of authority setting out power/limitations (chain of command) 0 3. Formal rules and standard operating procedures 0 4. Training, career paths, reward systems (aka advancement) Macro/Micro analysis o Macro organization and external organizational environment o Micro groups eams and interpersonal relations o Organizations are complex systems and what happens on one level affects another 0 Unanticipated consequences of changes! 3 lenses o Strategic design 0 View of the organization: input-throughput-output system 0 Key concepts: activities, interdependence, resources (esp. nformation) 0 Key processes: grouping, linking, and aligning 0 View of the environment: resource base (source of inputs), competitive market 0 Role of the leader: organizational architect, strategist 0 Stimuli for change: lack of internal alignment, lack of fit between organization environment Obstacles to change: inadequate information (they dont get it), inadequate analysis (the case isnt convincing) o Political system 0 View of the organization: an arena for conflict 0 Key concepts: power influence, interests 0 Key processes: conflict, negotiation, coalition building, networking 0 View of the environment: external stakeholders 0 Role of the leader: forging coalitions, identifying and leveraging interests, negotiating 0 Stimuli for change: shifts in dominant coalition, in power of stakeholders 0 Obstacles to change: entrenched interests (they wont buy in because hey stand to lose) o Cultural perspective 0 View of the organization: a social construct what we think it is 0 Key concepts: identity, symbols, values, basic assumptions 0 Key processes: meaning and interpretation, legitimating 0 View of environment: social and cultural network 0 Role of the leader: articulating vision, symbolizing the culture, understanding and leveraging the culture 0 Stimuli for change: challenges to basic assumptions, contending interpretations Impediments to change: dominant culture, established mindsets (they cant see it) Levels of analysis o Individual o Group o Organization Applications o Teams o Gender and Diversity Ince ntives and Motivation Change and CSR WEEK 2 STRATEGIC DESIGN Strategic design systems deliberately constructed to achieve certain strategic goals o Efficiency (accomplishing strategic goals with least resources)+ effectiveness (goals accomplished to standards) emphasized o Assumption: organization has a strategy for creating value (value proposition/ distinctive competitive advantage) establishes what activities will lead to success o Key strategic question: which activities should be inside the boundaries of the organization and which outside? We will write a custom essay sample on Orgs 2000 Term Notes specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Orgs 2000 Term Notes specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Orgs 2000 Term Notes specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Key elements o Information processing and enhancing system o Task basic element smallest unit of activities needed to be done to achieve overall strategic goals 0 Vary in complexity, routinization and interdependence o Task interdependence 0 Sequential interdependence one task completed and then handed off to next stage 0 Harder to manage than pooled, easier than reciprocal 0 Pooled interdependence tasks undertaken at same time and tlnal result put together 0 Easiest to manage 0 Reciprocal interdependence tasks conducted in repeated interaction with each other 0 Hardest to manage Organizational design choices begin with strategic grouping differentiation of clusters of activities, positions, and individuals into work units o Then they must go through linking ensure that resources and information flows efficiently and effectively between activities/groups o Lastly must use alignment mechanisms (incentive systems, information systems, etc. to ensure people have the resources AND incentives to carry out tasks assigned to them Strategic grouping gathering tasks, functions, disciplines and separating from others o Assumption: coordination and communication are easier within unit han across units o Basic criteria 0 Activity (function) 0 Product/technology (business division/unit) 0 Market/customer (geography/customer segment) o Grouping by expertise/function bringing together individuals who share similar functions, disciplines, skills, and work processes Three strengths 0 1. Development of deep functional expertise and a high degree of specialization 2. Economies of Scope easy to transfer resources across activities within functions 0 3. Allows for creations of separate alignment systems each tailored to every functions needs/strengths Four weaknesses 1 . Backward flows of information can be difficult due to sequential interdependence between functions (e. g. from marketing to eng) -> therefore not responsive to changes in consumers 0 2. As specialization increases, individuals develop narrower perspectives 0 3. Difficult to assess costs 0 4. Tendency to expand levels of management over time this can inhibit efficient and effective info flows 0 Frequently adopted by new businesses maintained over time by organizations that have a single major business or share similar technologies across similar markets Grouping by Output/Product organizes on basis of service/product rovided Two strengths 0 1 . Transparency of performance costs/profits are clear of each function (business) 0 2. Clear strategic focus each business division head is responsible for profitability/growth of a complete chain 0 Four weaknesses 0 1 . Difficulty of sharing resources lead to duplication of activities across business units 0 2. New business creation difficult business units focus on expanding their own business instead of finding new opportunities OR competing across units 0 3. Functional specialists are spread can lose touch with innovation in own fields 0 4. Distributing activities across different units can lead to missed learning opportunities in core functions 0 Structure associated with strategies that emphasize efficiency, where info on cost/ profitability is crucial Grouping by Market gathers together people who perform different activities/tasks and produce different outputs but serve same customers/market 0 1 . Capacity for deep customer knowledge and close relationships 0 2. Tailor products/services to different needs 0 Three weaknesses 0 1. Duplication of activities/resources 0 2. Erosion of deep technical expertise 0 3. Missed opportunities for synergies and learning 0 For strategies that are customer-focused (customers with different needs and tastes). Often in service industries Matrix organization picks two strategic grouping dimensions and gives them equal weight in org structure each manager of each operating unit reports to two bosses one for each dimension ren balancing two equally important grouping dimensions 0 Four weaknesses from complexity 0 1. Confusion 0 2. Higher costs 0 3. Delays in decision making 0 3. Heightened potential for conflict Front/back structure divided into two parts. Front end faces customer and organized by market developing and producing products. Back end is organized by product business units that include technology dev, production, logistics Two Strengths 1 . Close integration of tech development and production (back end) 2. Building deep customer knowledge and close relationships (front end) Three weaknesses 1 . Fragmentation of technical expertise (back end) 2. Poor integration between market needs and tech development 3. Ensuring adequate integration/synergy between the front and back ends can be difficult o Modular/Network structures self organizing network. The subunits come together and cooperate to deliver a specific product or service. New development. Not much info in reading o Line activities in the direct chain providing products/ services to customer o Staff support activities (so finance, legal, HR, PR, IT) Linking designing structures and processes to connect and coordinate organizational units and subunits whose tasks are interdependent but have been separated by strategic grouping decisions o Intensity of linking mechanisms is influenced by level of interdependence (pooled, sequential, reciprocal the task interdependence earlier) Dotted line relationships lower ranking person is formally responsible for supplying all relevant information to higher ranked person but that they have no formal authority over them beyond the information flow (easy fix for lack of horizontal information flow) o Liaison roles assigning responsibility for coordination across groups to individuals 0 These people are conduits for info and expertise 0 Primarily information-focused role 0 Not a full-time responsibility but combined with other act ivities o Integrator roles coordinate activities and decision processes 0 More of a general management role Have carrots and stic ks to help their role o Permanent cross-unit groups formal mandate for representatives of different task/work groups to pool expertise and coordinate efforts to a certain product/client/ market/problem. Often combined with other activities (not full-time assignment) o Temporary cross-unit groups like permanent groups, but project is the grouping dimension. Disband after the project. Heads of project teams play an integrator role o IT Systems enhance support for linking and coordinating mechanisms and even can be seen as own linking mechanisms Co-location putting people and subunits that need to exchange information in the same location o Challenge in designing linking mechanisms determining which add value and which do not Alignment ensuring the units and individuals assigned certain tasks and activities by grouping and linking have the resources and motivation to carry them out A common failure of organizational redesign efforts is a lack of organizational congruence misaligned supporting systems and processes o Performance measurement systems system to indicate whether or not a design is effective based on its performance. Need to be designed so that they do not pull groups in incompatible directions that undercut linking o Rewards and incentives useful tool for changing behaviour. 0 Criteria for general principles: 0 Incentives should link performance to pay and directly link performance to specific standards and objectives 0 Rewards should relate directly to the nature of performance required at each level of the organization. Rewards should be directly linked to objectives that are within the groups or individuals power to control 0 Incentive plans should match measurement periods for rewards to relevant erformance plans 0 One view individuals oriented to material rewards 0 Prone to free ride off others can be unproductive without negative sanctions 0 Other view most individuals want to do a good Job 0 Main challenge is to design reward system that doesnt misalign rewards with requirements of orgs strategic intent perverse incentives o Resource allocation assessing adequacy of resource to carry out assigned tasks very difficult to implement o HR Development -Allocating resources of people as well as developing (training) and creating them (hiring) Strategic organizational design process Disruption of flow of business re design efforts take up time and attention of managers and tie up organizational resources 0 Information is not processed adequately employees do not recognize the value of different kinds of info, how to interpret it, how to add value, or how to pass it on o Risk to LT relationships with customers/suppliers they do not know who to talk to in the organization because of changing positions o Stress loss ot continui ty, departure ot key people = damages core competencies ot company. People worry about Job loss o Good design process (Nadler/Tushman) 0 1. Those that emerge from consideration of widest possible range 0 2. Design process involves people who understand the organization 0 3. Developed with implementation in mind 0 4. Making people responsible for making the change work feel as if were part of shaping the change o Stimulus for change 0 Response to growth more products, broader range of customers, etc. 0 Internal problems lack of coordination, excessive conflict, unclear roles, poor work flows, etc. Environmental changes (most frequent) from external business environment Organization seen as throughout-put takes inputs from environment, adds value hrough internal processes, and distributes to users outside the organization 0 Input- set environment 0 Output-set market 0 Shifts in the environment can change the design organization must fit the environmental pressures Understanding an organization 0 1. Know its strategy what is the organization trying to accomplish? How does it differentiate itself? What does it do better than others? 0 2. Map its design 0 What is the grouping structure? 0 How are the units created by the structure linked? 0 Are the basic systems aligned with each other? Do they positively reinforce each other? Does the organization design fit the demands of its environment and of its strategy? Strategic organizational design process 0 1. Generate design criteria 0 2. Generate grouping alternatives 0 3. Evaluate grouping alternati ves 0 4. Identify coordination requirements 0 5. Generate structural linking mechanisms 0 6. Evaluate structural linking mechanisms 0 7. Conduct impact analysis 0 8. Refine and eliminate designs 0 9. Identify issues for operational design and alignment 0 10. Identify issues for implementation Political system sees organization as a social system constructed as an arena for ompetition and conflict among individuals, groups, and other organizations whose interests and goals differ o Roots of conflict lie in different interests, disagreements requiring action, including negotiation, coalition building, exercise of power and influence o Asks Whos defining the problem? What gives them the power to define it? Whos advocating my solution and why? How can I get an outcome that serves the interests of me and my group? o Decisions must be political have to have buy in of those with power to implement/block them Interests what people want and whats at stake for hem o Assumption: people act rationally to serve their own interests (economic man) o Collective interests those shared by others belonging to same group o Groups: 0 Formal structure 0 Demographic groups 0 Division of labour 0 Location 0 Professional/occupational category o Stakeholder perspective identifies groups that have a share stake (i. e. set of collective interests) 0 1 . Analyzing what interests are and what priority they have for individuals and collective actors 0 Multiple interests at same time LT/ST, competing, autonomy/ cooperation 0 Collectives also have multiple interests Therefore, the way decisions are made, they depend mostly on how key decision makers see and assign weight to their interests 0 These interests are also dynamic they change 0 Can be latent do not realize they exist until an event happens 0 To carry out an action, one must understand what interests will be affected by it Power ability to affect behaviour of other people 0 1 . Influence someone does not have formal authority but has ability to persuade others. Legitimate 0 2. Authority legitimate and decreed upon by organizational hierarchy/formal positions 0 3. Coercion domination not considered very legitimate. Breeds resentment. Basically punishing someone o Sources of power: 0 Personal characteristics charisma gift of grace. Emotional connection between leader and followers. Unstable, requires constant proofs, difficult to transfer 0 Energy 0 Focus 0 Sensitivity to others and ability to understand how they see interests 0 Flexibility 0 Ability to tolerate conflict 0 Submerging ones ego and getting along 0 Willingness to engage in conflict to further ones actions is a source of power Scarce or valued expertise 0 Past performance/track record People believe can cultivate future relationships with high fliers 0 Formal position 0 Provides guide to resource allocation, info flows, evaluation of employee performance, task assignments, conflict resolution 0 Proximity of subunit to head of organization greater the power 0 Informal network position 0 Size of network and position in network is crucial 0 Centrality how many links you are between powerful individuals within a network 0 Network clusters are better and more efficient than redundant interconnected, tightly knit networks 0 Network position is a great source of influence for 2 reasons 0 1. Info advanta ge in can confer 0 2. Potential for coalitions 0 Holes in an organizational network where there is no direct link between subunits that could benefit from being linked structural holes o Someone who bridges these wholes has power because he has disproportionate say since he has contact with both 0 Many social networks: task-related networks, friendship networks, advice networks o How to identify where power resides in an organization: 0 Reputation ask people who has power in the org 0 Representational indicators which groups interests are over repped Observation of consequences which groups benefit most from resource allocation 0 Symbols of power o Sources of power: Personal characteristics, scare valued expertise, track record/ contribution to org. performance, formal position in org. hierarchy, informal network position Using political lens to take action: 0 1. Map interests and power 0 1 . Supporters whose cooperation do you need 0 2. Blockers whose opposition could hold you up 0 3. Potential stakeholders who will be affected 0 4. Existing coalitions who are the friends/allies of potential supports/blockers and what are their collective interests This provides guidance on a) how to convince key stakeholders that your initiative serves them, and b) how to tailor your initiative so that incorporates key stakeholders 0 2. Getting buy-in getting people to commit to action 0 Escalation of commitment people are more likely to commit to something that they have already invested resources into 0 Publically made less likely to back in 0 More resources = more commitment 0 Giving stakeholders chance to provide feedback they have some effect on the group 0 Risk: having potential supporter back out 0 3. Finding allies building coalition illusion of influence feeling that Set of allies who act together to support certain policies/activities 0 Long-term can be a general coalition to provide reciprocal support for each others interests 0 Dominant coalition upper management acting together in their interests 0 Idea of reciprocity mostly 4. Building a network 0 Built on reciprocity (l do for you, you do for me), and trust. Have values, i. e. urrencies: 0 Rewards-related 0 Task-related 0 Relationship-related 0 Status-related 0 Key to establish trust to overcome initial barrier and begin with reciprocity Mainta ining relationships are a crucial time sink may take up to 80% of managers ime 0 Choose type of network to maintain 5. Building negotiation skills WEEK 4 CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE Cultural perspective focuses on social and personal identities carried by people. Cultural understandings are collectively shaped and rooted in the past o Limitations of managers, structural authority, influence, and rationality best describe human behaviour o Emphasis that people must learn these things to be fully functioning members of org Schiens model of culture: o Pyramid going from top to bottom: 0 1 . Artifacts/behaviours (symbols) what you observe 0 2. Espoused values what you are told (normative)

Speech aimed at educators- why they should bring children to Maropeng

Speech aimed at educators- why they should bring children to Maropeng Speaker 1Good afternoon ladies and gentlemen, and thank you for joining us today. As you will no doubt have heard in the news, a new initiative in the Cradle of Humankind has been opened, called Maropeng. It is a government funded project which will hopefully boost the South African economy by attracting tourists from all over the world. Maropeng can also be used as an educational facility, which is why we have brought you here today. My colleagues will share with you how exactly this can be achieved. It's not necessary for you to be lectured on the "boring details", so we will be telling you about the many ways that Maropeng can 'Edutain', as well as facilities that cater for school trips and the suchlike.Insert nameThank you (name). Good afternoon everyone, my name is (name). I will be telling you a little about prices- okay, we said we wouldn't be giving you 'boring details', but sometimes it's necessary so you will have to bear with me! What you basically need to know is that the price per learner for an unguided tour around Maropeng is R25, while a guided tour is R35.The original complete skull (without upper teeth a...

Vocabulary and Phrases Useful for Writing Business Letters

Vocabulary and Phrases Useful for Writing Business Letters This sheet focuses on core vocabulary and phrases used when writing business letters or e-mails in English. This business writing reference can be used in English for specific purposes classes as a starting point for students who need to use English on an everyday basis for written business communications. Teachers are often not equipped with the exact English terminology required in very specific trade sectors. For this reason, core vocabulary sheets go a long way in helping teachers provide adequate materials for students with English for specific purposes needs. English for Specific Purposes: Core Vocabulary Lists to act on behalf ofto agree withalways at your serviceas agreedas far as Im concernedas far as the payment is concernedas followsas per invoiceas per to the conditionsas per your requestas requestedas soon as possibleat your convenienceat your earliest convenienceat your expenseawaiting your replyto be able toto be authorized toto be characterized byto be confident into be delighted toto be held responsible forto be in arrears with paymentsto be in difficultyto be interested inon arrival of the goodson behalf ofon condition that - provided thaton deliveryon receipt of the orderon short noticeon written requestorder to be confirmedour best attentionour offer is still openoutside addressto pay the maximum attention to the matterpayable in advanceplease allow usplease send usplease send us your instructionsprices are increasingto reach the destinationto refer toto return a letter to the senderto sell at the bestto send under separate coversender addressshort-termsimilar to sample - up t o sampleto be lateto be overrun with ordersto be prepared to - to be willing to before the date we agreed uponBest regardsbody of the lettercircular letterclaim - letter of complaintto come to a decisionto come to an agreement - to reach an agreementcomplimentary closeto cope with the competitioncorrespond to the sampleto correspond withcovering letterdue to oversightenclosure - attachmentto fix an appointmentfollowing your instructionsfrom order receiptfurther to our letter - following our lettergoods listed belowgreetinghalf-priceto have the pleasure toto stop negotiationsto submit a sampleto suit the quality - to meet the qualityto take into considerationthe aim of this letterthe following itemsthe goods are available in our warehousethe goods are not similar to the samplethe goods are sold outthe goods arrived in good conditionsthe letter remained unansweredthe matter in referencethe meeting was canceledto our mutual benefitto the kind attention ofunder separate coverup to an am ount ofutmost carewe acknowledge receipt ofwe apologize again forwe apologize forwe apologize for the delaywe apologize for the mistakewe are sorry to have to we are sorry to inform youto have the power to herebyin case of needin compliance with - accordinglyin due time - in due coursein good conditionin our favorin partial paymentin reply to your letterin the absence ofto inform in due timeinside addressto let someone know in advanceletter opening - beginning of the letterletterheading - headingto look forward to looking forward to an early replylooking forward to hearing from youto make the goods availableto meet a demandto meet customers requirementsto meet the demandMessrsto notify in advance abouton advanced paymentwe have receivedwe hope well receive the goods soonwe look forward to your kind replywe must apologize forwe remain - our kindest regardswe sent youwe thank you in advancewe wish to inform you thatwe would appreciate it if you could answerwe would appreciate your rep lywith no obligation - without commitmentwith reference to - in reference to with the compliments ofwith the utmost carewith two weeks noticewithin the end of the monthwithin whichwithout delaywithout noticewould you please let us havewould you please let us knowyou orderedyou requestedyou sent usYours faithfully (GB) - Yours truly (GB)

The role of Chaim Rumkowski in the Lodz ghetto Essay

The role of Chaim Rumkowski in the Lodz ghetto - Essay Example In times past and even today, we know that countries and kingdoms try to invade other countries and kingdoms in a bid to possess their land and possibly enslave its members.This has been in an attempt to ensure expansion to expand economic possession and in some cases, show superiority. If not at all, it is not for nothing that the United Nations itself recognises certain countries as Veto Nations, some of G (Great)-Countries, and others as members of the United Nations Security Council. Such accolades accorded to countries always make them feel the need to undertake military and economic moves that will win them global pride. Again, it is not for nothing that though many nations of the world have gained political independence and enjoy their sovereignty, they still pay a lot of respect to their colonial masters.So the underlining factor is that countries want and admire fame.Counties love that their names as heard as super powers, counties love that they are the once who make headli ne news in the media everyday.Just as countries do, political, military and royal personalities also take a lot of pride in being referred to as ‘super powers’.Mention can be made of names like Alaric the Visiqoth, Alexander the Great, Attila the Hun, Cyrus the Great, Hannibal, Julius Caesar, Marius who were accorded accolades as warriors, conquerors and the like.... Counties love that their names as heard as super powers, counties love that they are the once who make headline news in the media everyday. Just as countries do, political, military and royal personalities also take a lot of pride in being referred to as ‘super powers’. Mention can be made of names like Alaric the Visiqoth, Alexander the Great, Attila the Hun, Cyrus the Great, Hannibal, Julius Caesar, Marius, Scipio Africanus who were accorded accolades as warriors, conquerors and the like. In times past, these fighters sprang up to fame because they led their armies to undertake the invasion, capturing and conquering of other great nations, armies or people. Even though such acts of bravery may not be very much needed today as it existed in times past, the general perception is that the contributions made by those people were necessary for their nations; back in those days. Some commentators argue that we do not see military takeovers and invasion wars today just becaus e the approach to becoming a champion and that the acts of bravery and warship displayed by those gallant men and women in times past were wrong. It is against this argument that studies on the acts and inactions of such brave men and women of the world has continued to be relevant in school curricula and lessons. There is no denying the fact the study of history and for that matter the study of military warfare and military takeovers in times past will not end anytime soon. One important character, who stands out tall in history as far as religious, ethnic and regional conquests are concerned is Chaim Rumkowski. Born in 1877 in Russia, the family Mordechai Chaim Rumkowski and Rumkowski himself moved to Poland where he took up a career as the

Professional Aspect of Care Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Professional Aspect of Care - Essay Example This will enable the nurses to practice autonomously and be accountable for the health care practices to ensure they respect dignity and human rights. Professional nurses must meet the physical and mental health needs of all the patients regardless of their ages, races, and ethnicity. They must meet patients’ needs in all settings that include homes, health centers, and communities. Professionally, nurses have to be caregivers, patient advocates, councilors, leaders, managers, teachers, and coordinators (Dawoud & Maben 2008 p. 1). As caregivers, nurses have to understand the patients’ needs through communication for him or her to support them emotionally through their attitudes and actions. Care giving also involves performance of health care activities that patients cannot do autonomously. Nurses should not only demonstrate physical professional care, but they should also develop close emotional relationships with patients through communication. The contemporary care-g iving role entails knowing that patients feel insecure by communicating with them. Indeed, such feeling may threaten their ability to cope. The role requires empathy, which makes the nurses to be aware of the individuals’ emotional state and need for support (National Quality Board 2012). Teaching is also part of nurses’ profession that is vital in the current health care arena because it enhances communication. Nurses give information to patients according to their health care needs (Nicol &O’Caroll 2007 p. 3). For example, the information that nurses should communicate to patients entail explanation of the procedures involved in diagnosis processes and self-administration of medications. Additionally, nurses should teach the patients how to manage wound care, and the restorative exercises such as the ones done after mastectomy. While educating the patients regarding the health care practices, nurses have to give patients the chances to make choices concerning the issues affecting their health through appropriate communication (Dawoud & Maben 2008 p. 1). They should not force or give advice to the patients about any treatment decisions. They should only give them the potential alternatives and support their decisions. Furthermore, nurses should participate in creating awareness to the communities about the health care issues. While creating awareness they have to build effective relationships with clients through communication. In addition, they should encourage them to join community groups that offer financial and emotional support (Royal College of Nursing, 2012 p. 1). Professional nurses are also coordinators in any health care settings. For example, nurses who manage care should coordinate with the one who delegates care through communication processes (Westrick &Dempski 2009 p. 23). Additionally, nurses have to coordinate with doctors to develop a good relationship between them. This coordination is vital in health care units becaus e doctors depend on nurses in obtaining most of the patients’ information. Acquiring important information from nurses reduces the occurrence of medical errors that risks the patients’ lives (Carvalho, Reeves & Orford 2007 p. 29). Nurses should also be counselors for them to develop effective therapeutic relationships. As counselors, nurses have to communicate effectively with patients to make them develop positive feeling and behaviors in the health care settings. Counseling is vital when nurses are offering the potential alt

Low Involvement Theory Essay Example for Free

Low Involvement Theory Essay 1.0 BACKGROUND OF FOUNDER They are two founders who developed Interpersonal Deception Theory. Judee Burgoon or known as Professor Burgoon is the director of Human Communication Research for The Management of Information Centre. Besides that, she is also She is Professor of Communication and Professor of Family Studies and Human Development at the University of Arizona She was the PHD holder from West Virgina University. Professor Burgoon has authored 7 books and over 240 articles, chapters and reviews related to nonverbal and relational communication, interpersonal relationship, the impact of new communication technologies on human and human-computer interaction, and other researches. Among the theories that she almost notably linked are Interpersonal Adaptation Theory, Expectancy Violations Theory and Interpersonal Deception Theory. During her career, she has received many awards such as, NCA’s Golden Anniversary Monographs Awards, the Charles H. Woolbert Research Award for Scholarship of Lasting Impact. In 1999, she got the National Communication Association’s Distinguished Scholar Award, its highest award for lifetime of scholarly achievement. While in 2006, she awarded the Steven Chaffee Career Productivity Award. The awards that she gained show that she was talented American Academic. The second founder is David Buller. Professor David Buller was the Professor at Northern Illinois University. He was the philosophy professor. Besides that he also was the writer. Among his publication are Function, Selection and Design, in 1999, Adapting Minds, Evolutionary Psychology and the Persistent Quest for Human Nature in 2005. He has also contributed a lot in writing articles to books and journals. During his career, Buller has experience in finance, management, operations and sales. He has served as chairman of the Writing Committee for Social Studies Standards for Minnesota public schools. In his community he has served on the Hugo Planning Commission and political party precinct chair. As an active member of several professional organizations, he has been president of both the Strategic Leadership Forum and the Association for Corporate Growth. He was also a leader of the Edison Electric Institute Strategy Group and the Society of Competitive Intelligence Professionals. He was graduated from the Centre for Business Intelligence. He was died in 2011. 2.0 BACKGROUND OF THEORY Interpersonal deception theory (IDT) explain the interplay between active deceivers and detectors who communicate with multiple motives, who behave strategically, whose communication behaviours mutually influence one another to produce a sequence of moves and countermoves, and whose communication is influenced by the situation in which the deception transpires (EmGriffin, 2000). IDT attempts to explain the manner in which individuals deal with actual or perceived deception on the conscious and subconscious levels while engaged in face-to-face communication (Buller, 1996). This theory is an interpersonal theory that a set of unchanging assumptions concerning interpersonal communication in general and deception in particular. This theory is developed by Judee Burgoon and David Buller. The core ideas of IDT can be divided into two which are Interpersonal communication is interactive and strategies deception demands mental effort. Firstly, interpersonal communication is interactive means that interaction, rather than individuality, is at the core of their theory. For instance, if the encounter between you and Pat actually took place, both of you would be active participants, constantly adjusting your behaviour in response to feedback from each other. Whatever story you tell, you shouldnt expect Pat to remain verbally and nonverbally mute (EmGriffin, 2000). (Judee K.Burgoon, 1996) Second idea is strategies deception demands mental efforts which means that successful deceiver must consciously manipulate information to create a plausible message, present it in a sincere manner, monitor reactions, prepare follow-up responses, and get ready for damage control of a tarnished image-all at the same time. For example, If you choose to be less than honest in your surprise encounter with Pat, you may find yourself unable to attend to every aspect of deception, and some of your communication behaviour will go on automatic pilot. (EmGriffin, 2000). 3.0 MAIN CONCEPTS/ VARIABLES 3.1 Leakage Leakage concept is the behaviour outside of the deceptive Sender’s conscious control, mostly nonverbal in character, can signal dishonesty and it is applied in IDT. The concept was developed by Miron Zuckerman, who created a four-factor model to explain when and why leakage is apt to occur (A.Fos, 2005). First, deceiver’s intense attempt to control information can produce performances that come across as too slick. Second, lying causes physiological arousal. Third, the predominant felt emotions that accompany deceit are guilt and anxiety. Fouth, the complex cognitive factors involved in deception can tax the brain beyond its capacity (EmGriffin, 2000). Under the four-factor model the extreme concentration required by an individual engaged in deception and employing the compensating mechanisms to mask that deceit may result in their performance appearing polished or rehearsed. Lying also causes a sender to become psychologically and physiological aroused. Suc h arousal is difficult to mask and will eventually evidence itself. It is this very principle on which the polygraph machine is base (A.Fos, 2005). 3.2 Truth bias According to Burgoon and Buller, people tend to regard interpersonal message as honest, complete, direct, relevant and clear although when the speaker lying to them. McCornack claims that there exists an implied social contract that all of us will be honest with each other. It means that a mutual understanding that our messages will reflect reality as we know it. Besides that, Burgoon and Buller also convinced that people who know and like each other are particularly resistant to doubting ach others’ words. For example, the warmth relationships are motivated to find truth in whatever the other says and thus overlook or rationalize away statements that others might find questionable. (EmGriffin, 2000). 3.3 Suspicion Buller and Burgoon picture suspicion as a mid-range mind-set, located somewhere between truth and falsity. In spite of the many ways that respondents could become suspicious, Buller and Burgoon have found that it’s difficult to induce a deep-seated scepticism. Doubters tend to favour indirect methods to gain more information, but there is scant evidence that these probes help unmask deception (Judee K.Burgoon, 1996). Suspicion occurs when someone is tried to find the truth from the others. The person becomes suspicious with people who make them unconfident to believe what the others talk about. It usually happens when the person does not believe what the person says and he/she will not accept the word hundred percent truths. For instance, when you have cheated by someone, it is hard to believe that person again. You become suspicious to whatever the person says to you. 3.4 Interactivity Interpersonal deception theory views deception through the interactivity of interpersonal communication. As such, it considers deception as an interactive process between a sender and receiver. In contrast with previous studies of deception that focused on the sender and receiver individually, IDT focuses on the dyadic, relational and dialogic of deceptive communication. Next, Dyadic communication refers to communication between two people. A dyad is a group of two people between whom messages are sent and received. While relational means that refers to communication in which meaning is created by two people simultaneously filling the roles of both sender and receiver. Dialogic activity refers to the active communicative language of the sender and receiver, each relying upon the other within the exchange. Deception uses when the communication of one participant is deliberately false. For a variety of reasons, including receivers’ own cognitive loading from ongoing information management and the development of rapport between parties as interaction unfolds, receivers will typically judge senders more favorably than passive observers. Obviously, there is a correlation between the level of favorable impression of the sender and the ultimate chances of undetected deception (Burgoon, 1996). 3.5 Strategic behaviour When the Receiver doubts the truthfulness of the information conveyed they will give clues in the form of non-typical behaviours. This will occur even if they attempt to mask such behaviours. Strategic behaviour is the proper behaviour or reaction that people use to act like nothing is happen or trying to hide a secret or the truth. However, deceptive senders are by their nature more attuned to sensing suspicion than the receivers are to sensing deception. Thus, senders will adjust their message and its manner of presentation if they sense suspicion. This serves to make deception all the more difficult to detect. For instance, there is what is known as the â€Å"Othello error.† Individuals who are actually telling the truth behave in the same way when falsely accused or confronted with suspicion as do those guilty of actual deception. The term Othello error refers to the situation where a truth teller’s adaptation to a false accusation strikes the respondent as devious (Hearn, 2006). 3.6 Deception in Communication Buller and Burgoon are more concerned with an individual’s motivation than with their actual actions in determining deception. In their work they found that every deceptive act has, at its core, at least one of three motivations. The first is to accomplish some task or attain some goal. Second, the communication may be directed at maintaining or creating a relationship with the other party. Finally, deception is often used to save face of one or both of the parties to the communication. Most people are uncomfortable when engaging in deception. One way in which they deal with this feeling is to attempt to disassociate from the behaviour. For example, when people try to lie they try to react like normal but there must be something different like reducing eye contact or through their body movement. (Judee K.Burgoon, 1996) The other ways that senders deal with the deception is to engage in their masking behaviour. Masking is an attempt to protect the sender’s self-image and their relationship with the Receiver. When engaging in intentional deception senders will attempt to restrain any bodily cues which may signal deception. They may also engage in compensating behaviour, such as exhibiting extreme sincerity. The difficulty is that the detection of all of these behaviours can only be done if they are measured against the sender’s base-line behaviours (Judee K.Burgoon, 1996). 3.7 Falsification, Concealment and Equivocation One strategy is falsification where the deceiving party also referred as sender. While the person who is flat-out lies of the communication called as receiver. It means that the sender creates a fiction to deceit. For example the sender will creates a story that not really happen just only to lie or hide the truth. The second type of deception is concealment. In concealment the sender omits certain material facts which results in deceptive communication. Finally, equivocation is included in the roster of deceptive behaviour. When employing equivocation the Sender skirts issues by, for instance, by changing the subject or offering indirect responses (Hearn, 2006). Nonverbal cues A nonverbal cue is important element in IDT. People can detect deception through non verbal cues. Although people can manipulate their words, however it is difficult to hide their truth nonverbal cues. Nonverbal cues are including facial expression, eye contact, gestures and touch. When someone try to hide secret or lie, they are difficult to hide their facial expression and especially their eye contact with others. They try to reduce the eye contact with others and the way they talk, they move or react is little bit different from their usual reaction. 4.0 Development of IDT Interpersonal Deception Theory (IDT) is generating from the concept of nonverbal cues to detect deception during conversation. The idea of this study was come from Sigmund Freud who studied about nonverbal cues in detecting deception among people. In his study, Freud observed a patient being asked about his darkest feelings. If his mouth was shut and his fingers were trembling, he was considered to be lying. From the situation, he tried to study more about nonverbal cues. Then, in 1989, DePaulo and Kirkendol developed the Motivation Impairment Effect (MIE). This occurs when a person’s motivation to succeed at lying negatively affects on the person’s performance, making the lie less convincing. (Kirekendol, 2011). MIE states the harder people try to deceive others, the more likely they are to get caught. Burgoon and Floyd, however, revisited this research and formed the idea that deceivers are more active in their attempt to deceive than most would anticipate or expect. For instance, DePaulo has estimated the human ability to detect deception at 53%, which she states is â€Å"not much better than flipping a coin.† She has also stated that â€Å"human accuracy is really just better than chance.† (Hearn, 2006). In 1996, IDT was developed by two communication professors, David B. Buller and Judee K. Burgoon. They restudied the studies made by Sigmund Freud, nonverbal cues, and then they observed DePaulo and Kirkendol† studies which they developed about Motivation Impairment Effect. Judee Burgoon and David Buller then combined both studies and they studied in depth about deception in conversation among people. Prior to their study, deception had not been fully considered as a communication activity, it is more like theory of communication strategies use to lie or hide the truth information from others. Previous work had focused upon the formulation of principles of deception. The principles of Interpersonal Deception Study were derived by evaluating the lie detection ability of individuals observing unidirectional communication (Hearn, 2006). The early studies of Interpersonal Deception Theory found initially that, although humans are far from perfect in their efforts to diagnose lies, they are substantially better at the task than would result merely by chance. However, this statement should be contrasted with subsequent statements made by the same researchers. Buller and Burgoon discount the value of highly controlled studies. Therefore, IDT is based on two-way communication and intended to describe deception as an interactive communicative process (Hearn, 2006). Based over years of the author’s and other scholars’ research, IDT expound on the dynamics properties of interpersonal communication, nonverbal behaviour, message processing, credibility and deception as it is achieved through interpersonal interaction. 5.0 Application of IDT IDT demonstrate that people are poor at detecting deception. Thus, it is crucial that one not rely upon a perceived ability to detect deception in the negotiation context. There are habitual liars who compulsively engage in deception. However, most people do not lie without reason. It is natural to think that deception would be beneficial to any negotiating party. Many statements will be made in the course of a negotiation. Not all statements will completely true or completely false. The language used to achieve a specific task can be varied as the people who feel a need to deceive. Yet Buller and Burgoon list some characteristic that reflect strategic intent. 5.1 Uncertainty and vagueness If we do not want our friend to know about our absent for class yesterday, we must keep the answer short and noncommittal. If we say, â€Å"I’m sick† the brevity precludes detail to challenge (Burgoon, 2000). Another way is to speak in the passive voice and use indefinite pronouns. 5.2 Nonimmediacy, reticence, and withdrawal We wish not to be there when our friend ask why we did not come to class yesterday. That desire to be out of the situation is often encoded in nonverbal actions. We might sit further apart that others, or lean back rather than forward as our answer. Words also can show nonimmediacy when the speaker changes verbs from present to past tense (Burgoon, 2000). 5.3 Disassociation This is the way of distancing yourself from what you have done. Levelers are inclusive terms that do this by removing individual choice (Burgoon, 2000). For example, we will tell our friends that everyone has done it and not attending class is normal. All of these linguistic constructions sever the personal connection between the actor and the act of deception. 5.4 Image- and relationship-protecting behavior Since discovery could hurt their reputations and threaten their relationship, they consciously strive to suppress the bodily cues that might signal deception. To mask the cues that leak out despite their best efforts, they try to appear extra sincere. Deceivers tend to nod in agreement when the respondent speaks, avoid interrupting, and smile frequently (Burgoon, 2000). 5.5 Flood the circuits Interpersonal Deception Theory demonstrates that when a Sender’s cognitive abilities are â€Å"overloaded† they will begin to leak. It stands to reason that the greater the load, the greater the leak and the easier its detection. Another major premise of Interpersonal Deception Theory is that individuals are poor lie detectors in one-on-one communication situations. Thus, it would appear to be to a negotiator’s advantage to increase the load on their opposite (Burgoon, 2000). 5.6 Falsification, Concealment and Equivocation One strategy is falsification where the deceiving party also referred as sender. While the person who is flat-out lies of the communication called as receiver. It means that the sender creates a fiction to deceit. For example the sender will creates a story that not really happen just only to lie or hide the truth. The second type of deception is concealment. In concealment the sender omits certain material facts which results in deceptive communication. Finally, equivocation is included in the roster of deceptive behaviour. When employing equivocation the Sender skirts issues by, for instance, by changing the subject or offering indirect responses (Hearn, 2006).

Love in the Brain Essay -- Psychology Psychological Neurological Paper

Love in the Brain Does brain equal behavior? Some people have argued that they have difficulty saying it does because they find it hard to believe that our individual, tangible brain controls emotions that many consider to be intangible, such as being in love. This paper will discuss the role that the brain actually plays in love- why we are attracted to certain people, why we feel the way we do when we are around them, and whether or not this is enough to say that in the case of love, brain does equal behavior. The first stage of romantic love begins with attraction. Whether you have been best friends for a long time or you just met the person, you begin your romantic relationship when there is that feeling of attraction. But why are we attracted to some people and not to others? Some research and experimentation suggests that pheromones play a role in attraction ((1), (2), (3), (4)). Although the existence of pheromones in humans and the method by which individuals detect them is still under debate and requires further research, a study by Stern and McClintock on pheromones in women's underarm secretion gives the most solid evidence for the existence of human pheromones ((5)). It has been hypothesized that the brain detects these pheromones through an organ known as the vomeronasal organ (VNO), by receptors, or by the terminal nerve in the nostrils ((5)). Despite the fact that pheromones and how they are detected in humans is controversial, it has been suggested that selectivity for c ertain pheromones might explain why we are only attracted to certain people ((6)). Research agrees, however, that whether or not pheromones exist, they are not the only reason we are attracted to an individual. Other facto... ...at's in a name? Bioscience. July 1998: 505-511. 6) Love Chemistry: New studies analyze love's effects http://abcnews.go.com/sections/science/DailyNews/love000707.html 7) Mating and Temperament http://keirsey.com/pygmalion/couples.html 8) What is chemistry and chemicals in love relationships http://www.cyberparent.com/love/chem1.htm 9) Chemicals http://dubinserver.colorado.edu/prj/swef02/references.html 10) Love in the Brain http://www.sensualism.com/love/ 11) BBC News- Health- How the brain registers love http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/820857.stm 12) My search for love and wisdom in the brain by Marian Diamond http://www.newhorizons.org/neuro/diamond_wisdom.htm 13) Bower, Bruce. Brain faces up to fear, social signs. Science News. Dec 1994: 406. 14) Biology of Love http://www.primal.es/primal/books/janov/biologyoflove.htm Love in the Brain Essay -- Psychology Psychological Neurological Paper Love in the Brain Does brain equal behavior? Some people have argued that they have difficulty saying it does because they find it hard to believe that our individual, tangible brain controls emotions that many consider to be intangible, such as being in love. This paper will discuss the role that the brain actually plays in love- why we are attracted to certain people, why we feel the way we do when we are around them, and whether or not this is enough to say that in the case of love, brain does equal behavior. The first stage of romantic love begins with attraction. Whether you have been best friends for a long time or you just met the person, you begin your romantic relationship when there is that feeling of attraction. But why are we attracted to some people and not to others? Some research and experimentation suggests that pheromones play a role in attraction ((1), (2), (3), (4)). Although the existence of pheromones in humans and the method by which individuals detect them is still under debate and requires further research, a study by Stern and McClintock on pheromones in women's underarm secretion gives the most solid evidence for the existence of human pheromones ((5)). It has been hypothesized that the brain detects these pheromones through an organ known as the vomeronasal organ (VNO), by receptors, or by the terminal nerve in the nostrils ((5)). Despite the fact that pheromones and how they are detected in humans is controversial, it has been suggested that selectivity for c ertain pheromones might explain why we are only attracted to certain people ((6)). Research agrees, however, that whether or not pheromones exist, they are not the only reason we are attracted to an individual. Other facto... ...at's in a name? Bioscience. July 1998: 505-511. 6) Love Chemistry: New studies analyze love's effects http://abcnews.go.com/sections/science/DailyNews/love000707.html 7) Mating and Temperament http://keirsey.com/pygmalion/couples.html 8) What is chemistry and chemicals in love relationships http://www.cyberparent.com/love/chem1.htm 9) Chemicals http://dubinserver.colorado.edu/prj/swef02/references.html 10) Love in the Brain http://www.sensualism.com/love/ 11) BBC News- Health- How the brain registers love http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/820857.stm 12) My search for love and wisdom in the brain by Marian Diamond http://www.newhorizons.org/neuro/diamond_wisdom.htm 13) Bower, Bruce. Brain faces up to fear, social signs. Science News. Dec 1994: 406. 14) Biology of Love http://www.primal.es/primal/books/janov/biologyoflove.htm